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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are typical byproducts of cellular metabolism, playing a role as secondary messengers and influencing different normal physiological functions of the body. Moreover, there is growing evidence supporting the role of ROS in numerous pathological conditions, that is, diseases.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulate several signaling pathways through interaction with critical signalingmolecules, affecting a variety of cellular processes, such as proliferation, metabolism, differentiation, and survival (apoptosis signal-regulated kinase 1 (ASK1), PI3 kinase (PI3K), protein tyrosine phosphatase
In eukaryotic cells, ROS are mainly produced by biochemical reactions in mitochondrial cellular respiration processes (complex I and III, located in inner membrane). Transmembrane NADPH oxidases (NOXs) [12] and the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) are the major endogenous enzymatic sources of O2 and H2O2.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are short-lived and highly reactive molecules. Low doses of ROS activate cell survival signalling pathways: UPR, Nrf2. High doses of ROS activate cell death signalling pathways: apoptosis and necroptosis. ROS activate mitochondrial, death receptor and ER pathways of apoptosis.
Maintaining a basal level of ROS in cells is essential for life. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are thought to play a dual role in plant biology. They are required for many important signaling reactions, but are also toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism.

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Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are formed as natural by-products of normal cell activity and participate in cellular signaling [1]. The increase in ROS levels has harmful effects on cell homeostasis, structures, and functions and results in oxidative stress.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were initially recognized as toxic by-products of aerobic metabolism. In recent years, it has become apparent that ROS plays an important signaling role in plants, controlling processes such as growth, development and especially response to biotic and abiotic environmental stimuli.
It is now clear that ROS have a cell signalling role in many biological systems, both in animals and in plants. ROS induce programmed cell death or necrosis, induce or suppress the expression of many genes, and activate cell signalling cascades, such as those involving mitogen-activated protein kinases.

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